Effect Of Colour Of Learning Material And Instructors Attribute On Memory Recall
Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Background Of Study
The problem of memory recall and how it affects learning has been an issue of major concern especially in the various tertiary institutions of learning. In Nigeria, the inability to recall learning materials that have been studied is mostly associated with youths, to be more specific the undergraduates. Poor learning materials as well as instructors attributes has contributed to poor memory recall among the youths.
Memory is the faculty of the mind, by which information is encoded, stored and retrieved. Memory is vital to experiences, and related to limbic systems. It is the retention of information over time for the purpose of influencing future actions. (Eysenck, 2012).According to Atkinson and Shiffrin (2010), Memory is an informational processing system with explicit and implicit functioning that consists of a sensory processor, short-term and long-term memory.
Maltin, (2005) also defined memory as the process of maintaining information overtime. Memory is involved in the storage and subsequent retrieval of information and this information takes many different forms. Sternberg, (2000) defined memory as the process by which we draw our past experiences in order to use the information in the present. The formation of new memories is a process that occurs from minutes to minutes in our daily lives. In essence, memory may be defined as the storage of learned information for recall. The goal of memory is to encode, store and recall. Memory recall is usually conceptualized as the subsequent re-accessing of events, or information from the past, which has been previously encoded and stored in the brain. (Squire, 2009).Studies have shown that memory recall is a more or less automatic process, therefore distraction or divided attention at the time of recall tends to slow down the recall process to some extent. Studies have shown that repeated recall of held information led to better learning and long-term retention (Karpicke & Roediger, 1990).Studies have also shown that slow learning process strongly contributes to long-term memory than fast learning process (Joiner & Smith, 2003).The ability to recall is based on how well able information has been encoded in the memory.
Global studies on memory recall have revealed that recall is the ability to retrieve previously learnt information from memory without a cue. Most times, cue can facilitate recall, because it is more effective when they have a strong complex link with the information to be recalled. Colour of learnt materials is a cue that can aid recall easily, recall is possible when retrieval cue are presented to students because it enables the students to quickly access the information into memory.
Tulving, (2000) found out that recall is better when the environment is similar in both learning. Once, information which is the colour of learning materials and instructors attributes has been encoded and stored in the memory, it must be retrieved in order to be used. When information goes into the memory system (sensory input), it needs to be changed into a form that the memory can adapt with, in order to be stored. The colour of learning materials or attributes of an instructor may be stored if it is encoded into meaning: Semantic Processing (Cherry, 2017).
Up to this point, Memory recall has been understood by focusing on how information goes through the memory, and how this information can be recalled. This has been understood by focusing on whether students are significantly able to recall learnt materials. Therefore, people who shown poor performance are seen as having the inability to encode, store and later recall what information is needed to be recalled. Since the need for memory recall varies from one student to another, it may help to know how able they to recall learnt materials I.e. trying to distinguish between students with high level of memory recall. Those who have high level of memory recall are likely to respond well to whatever has been learnt.
Ebbinghaus,(2000) found that multiple learning, over learning, and spacing study time increases recall of information .The focus on memory has led to important advances in understanding memory recall (Lloyd, 2005). Most times, we find it difficult to remember information; it may be because we are unable to recall the information. When we are asked to retrieve information from memory, the differences between short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM) becomes very clear. Short term memory (STM) is stored and retrieved sequentially while long-term memory (LTM) is stored and retrieved by association (Matlin, 2005).
Attention can affect memory recall in a surprisingly significant way, although research has shown that attention has the most noticeable impact on memory recall during the encoding phase. When an individuals attention is focused on another task or multiple tasks, it makes the encoding phase of memory much weaker, that is, if an individuals attention is not focused on specific information that information may not be well encoded into the brain and will thus be much weaker and harder to recall correctly. Motivation is another significant factor which can affect memory recall. Motivation to recall certain information can usually allow an individual to remember information more quickly and more clearly than information for which there is no incentive.
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior potentially which occurs as a result of reinforced practice (Kimble, 2002). Learning has furthered been defined as a more or less permanent modification of the response to a stimuli that results from experience (Wickens & Meyer, 2009). Learning can be viewed as a process of encoding, storing, processing, categorizing and clustering of information in memory.
Many variables have been advanced as contributing to the retrieval operations and such is colour (NIA, 2008; Pett & Wilson 1996). Colour is defined as the most important visual experience of human beings (Dzulkifli & Mustafar, 2013). It functions as a powerful information channel to the human cognitive system and has been found to play a significant role in enhancing memory recall .Therefore, in searching for strategies to facilitate the learning process, colours must be recognized as capable of motivating students to learn and profit from their educational experiences (Wichman, Sharpe & Gegenfurtner, 2002).
According to Thorndike, (2005) Learning is incremental and people learn through trial and error approach. He further explained that mental connections are formed through positive responses to particular stimuli. Colour is a powerful tool that aids learning which has many uses in the educational setting; it is also used to influence learning outcomes .Colour draws on both symbolic and cognitive power to affect learning, facilitate memorization and identification or concept. According to Myer(2014),colour improve our ability to remember both words and picture, it plays a positive role in affecting learners cognitive retention (Dzulkifli & Mustafar,2013).For enhanced academic performance it is important to know how colour influence learning. According to piaget (1980), learning is a developmental cognitive process, learning change the physical structure of the brain trough the process of continuous interactions between the learners and the external environment.
A plethora of studies has been conducted to enhance the role of colour in enhancing learning. Colour has a great effect on attention, a great way of enhancing learning. Most students are motivated to colour used to enhance learning, (Farley & Grant 2000). Pan (2010) found out that water has a positive influence, which helps in memorization of certain information by increasing our learning ability. Studies have indicated the influence of colours on learning (Pan, 2012; Smilek, Cudahy & Merikle 2002; Spence, Wong, Rusan & Rastegar 2006).
The effectiveness of colours on learning is based on few factors, consistency of the colour used during encoding and retrieval phases. This explains that colours presented during the time at which undergraduates are asked to memorize should be the same with the colour showed at the time of recall. This rule is in line with the encoded specificity principle that highlights the close connection between the two memory processes, which are encoding and retrieval in determining memory recall. Another factor to be considered is the right combination or colour because it can produce higher level of contrast, and can influence learning.
Learning research supports students desire for active learning. Learning depends on the degree to which student build meaningful connections between new information and their prior knowledge. According to Wittrock, (2005) students do not come to classroom as blank slates. They attend school with knowledge and experience that support their personal understanding of life and the world around them. To learn successfully, students must generate connections between the information they are trying to learn and the knowledge already organized in the memory (Weinstein & Meyer, 2009).The more connections, the greater the likelihood that students will remember and be able to access new information in their memory. The effectiveness of colour of learning materials depends on the depth to which undergraduates process new information from learnt materials (Marton & Saljo, 2012). Students who take time to understand new material will understand information significantly better than surface processor, who merely reproduce or memorize new materials.
Helping student process information by emphasizing the in depth-learning could result in stronger long term retention of learning materials. Research indicates that learning achievement and retention seems to be socially rooted and strong classroom relationship with both the instructor and student facilitates students satisfaction and learning outcome (Billson & Tiberius, 2009). Research indicates that learners respond to the entire sensory context in which learning occurs consequently. The colour of learning material is an important variable in the learning process (Caine & Cain, 2016). Unoh (2008) explained that reading to remember means reading with the view to be able not, merely to recognize and comprehend but also to retain for subsequent recall. Research supports students desire for experiential learning. Research for experiential teaching methods indicates that the approach appears to optimize student learning better than more passive methods like lecturers (comb and Bourne, 1989. Whiteman & Nielsen,1986).As Mckeachie, Pintrich,Lin, and Smith(1987) concluded, the use of recalling, and using of information to solve problems involves the kind of restructuring that should be likely to result in better retention, recall, and use or learning outside the classroom.
Attributes in defined as the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determines his unique adjustments to his environments (Allport, 2000). Allport explains attributes in terms of neuropsychic dispositions reflected in trait names. Attributes can also be defined as the characteristics of a person.
Effective learning is an outcome of effective teaching. Effective teaching, in turn, requires effective instructors. An effective instructor can organize the environment to provide students with active learning; most students are affected by the attributes of their instructor. An instructor who displays warm attributes increases the rate of recall among students (Best & Addison 2000). Studies have shown that even an instructor may be an expert in his field, and very rich academically, it is the way in which an instructor transfers information and knowledge to the student that matters most.
An instructor overall effectiveness depends on a combination of these instructors attributes. Although a number of studies defines and measure such instructional dimension (Arreola 1995, Centra 1993; Feldman 1976; Marsh 1987, Spencer, Schmelkin & Gellman 1997).
According to Akinboye (2011) Educational psychology is conceptualized as an applied psychology in which psychological principles are used to bring about positive change in the students, the instructors teaching strategies, the learning process, learning situation, curriculum and the assessment of learning. For the purpose of this research, Guidance can be defined as an assistance given to the learning by the instructor in order to facilitate achievement in the learning process. According to Good (2012) he defined an instructor as a person employed in an official capacity for the purpose of guiding and directing learning experiences of students in an educational institution whether public or private. For efficient and effective teaching and learning to take place, and for the realization of the objectives of the process, the instructions attributes must aid memory recall.
Many, especially undergraduates students consistently indicated that the instructor was the most the essential component of learning. Therefore an instructor must display certain characteristic which are as follows; Enthusiasm; an instructor enthusiasm would motivate student to commit more energy to learning. An instructor can strengthen students learning experience by caring about and relating to each student. Students believed that their attitudes about learning improves if instructors showed they cared and emphasized the importance of student learning to class success. According to the students interviewed too many instructors viewed the student teacher relationship as superfluous, which made students feel insignificant and unimportant.
According to Day (2010) an instructor should be aware of students learning and problems. There is therefore a strong need to train instructors to adapt instruction to the diverse students abilities, learning styles, personality trait and needs by using more differentiated teaching strategies. Highly effective instructor must possess certain positive background qualifications, sometimes called dispositions and personality attributes. They must possess something called instructor efficacy, a belief in their ability to cause change with undergraduate students. More effective instructor are also caring, enthusiastic, energetic as well as having positive attitudes and high expectations. Archer (2012) posited that we remember 10% of what we read, 20% of what we hear, 30% of what we see, 50% of what we see and hear, 70% of what we say and 90% of what we say and do. This analysis shows clearly that the more students utilize all relevant sensory registers in learning, the better the learning outcome.
According to Gagne, Briggs, and Wager (2009) an instructor should stimulate the recall of prerequisite learning through presentation of stimulus materials and provision of learning guidance. University student are mostly affected by the attributes of an instructor, most student expect certain qualities from an instructor. Pearson (1998) surveyed students with the age range of 15-19 years across the U.S. The students were interviewed on what they think makes an effective instructor; their responses highlight how important a student focused approach is to the learning experience. The top five qualities of a great instructor according to the students were; Ability to develop relationship with their students, patient, caring and kind personality. Without adoption of this high-quality attributes, instructors may be diminishing student learning and motivation rather than enhancing them.
1.2 Statement Of Problem
Over the years, a major challenge in the various institutions of learning among students has been the issue of recall.Often time; students are faced with the problem of inability to recall learning materials that have been studied. This has posed a major threat to their recall as this is evident in the poor grades and low grade point that students possess.
Some of these problems have been linked to poor environment of learning, poor learning materials in our institutions and so on. Also, link has been found between the instructors attributes and how much students are able to recall the materials they have learned.
Instructors attributes such as being cold or warm has a great impact on how students are able to recall learned materials from their memory. Despite these enormous number of proofs, the effects of learning materials colour and instructors attributes on memory recall is yet to be well understood.
The present study will seek to investigate effect of learning materials colour on memory recall among University of Uyo undergraduates where research of this nature has not been carried out previously. The study will also suggest methods of memory improvement to enhance better recall among students and to help curb problem of poor of memory recall.
For better understanding, the following research questions will be considered:
To what extent will learning coloured materials have an effect on memory recall?
To what extent will the instructors attributes have an effect on memory recall?
1.3 Purpose Of Study
The purpose of this study is to understand the effect of learning material colour and instructors attributes on memory recall. Specifically, the study aims at;
Investigating the extent to which colour of learning material affect undergraduates memory recall.
Investigating the extent to which instructors attributes affect undergraduate memory recall.
1.4 Significance Of Study
The study will be significant to the undergraduate and the students at large by exposing the various factors impinging on memory.
The study will also serve as an eye-opener to lecturers, teachers and instructors, generally on how various attitude which they display or portray have various effect (positive or negative) on how the students will recall learned materials.
The study will also help the government see their laxities in providing well equipped and rich learning, materials to the students at the various institutions of learning.
The study will also provide meaningful insight to the use of colour and also understanding the attributes needed by an instructor in increasing retention of learners especially undergraduates learners.
The study will also serve as a foundational basic for further research on the subject matter at hand.
This research will be of a great important to parent by helping the student get their coloured materials for their fast learning in order to assist them in memory recall. As well as, helping them learn faster than to be compared with others without the coloured material. According to Laeeque, (2017) colour motivates children towards learning. Therefore, this study will serve so many functions in improving memory recall.
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