ETHNICITY AND RELIGION IN INTER GROUP CONFLICTS IN NIGERIA

ETHNICITY AND RELIGION IN INTER GROUP CONFLICTS IN NIGERIA

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The concept of ethnicity is a hugely complicated topic that presents several interpretations. Even a cursory look through the literature reveals that the idea of ethnicity is quite recent, having been introduced less than 50 years ago. 1 Osaghae defines ethnicity as a social formation supported by activities that are exclusive to a certain culture as well as a distinctive set of symbols and cosmology. 2 An heritage of symbols, heroes, values, and hierarchies is provided by the belief in shared organs and a largely accepted common history, which also serve to bind the social identities of both insiders and outsiders. The use of ethnic identity and differences to obtain an advantage in situations of rivalry, conflict, and collaboration can be thought of as an ethnic construct. Depress defines ethnicity as mostly a subjective process of status identification in his own idea of what it is. 3 As a result, ethnic groupings are created to the extent that individuals utilize their ethnic identities to organize themselves and others in order to interact. Similar to this, ethnicity can be seen as an interaction or relationship between members of various ethnic groups who choose to emphasize their differences. This occurs when two or more ethnic groups have mutual interests, which typically results in conflict over resources like power or riches.

According to the Concise Oxford Dictionary, ethnicity refers to how ethnic groups pursue their goals and interests in respect to other ethnicities. Someone could add to it by saying that contextual discrimination occurs when members of one ethnic group compete with those of another for natural resources. According to Okwudiba Nnoli, ethnicity is a social phenomena linked to interactions between people of various ethnic backgrounds. He continued by defining an ethnic group as:

The collective nature of their limits is a characteristic of social formation. Language, culture, or both may be the pertinent communal component. Language has undoubtedly been the most important factor in Africa. Ethnic groups, however, are not always uniform social formations, not even in terms of language or culture. 4 Religion means different things to different people. There is no consenting of opinion on its meaning, that is why Egwu argued that religion is a subject of inquiry including attempts at its definition and conceptualization.5 Religion is thus defined in many ways and the definitions usually vary among scholars. According to Adeniyi, religion is a body of truths, laws and rites by which man is subordinated to the transcendent being.6 This implies that religion deals with norms and rules that emanated from God and which must be followed by believers. According to Ejizu, religion is man’s intuition of the sacred and ultimate reality and his expression of that awareness in concrete life.7 Many scholars such as Goody and Horton agree that the notion of “sacred” indicates the idea of the transcendent concept of religion and they both go further to undermine the fact that the ‘sensuous religion’ is a district type of experience that is essentially characterized by a feeling of mystery and awe. Ayinla understands religion as a particular system or set of systems in which doctrines, myths, rituals, sentiments and other similar elements are interrelated.8

Religion according to the Oxford Dictionary is defined as one of the systems of faith that are based on the beliefs in the existence of a particular God or gods. The concept has also been defined as a particular interest or influence that is very importance in one’s life. In its own definition, the Oxford learner’s dictionary explained religion as the belief in a super human controlling power that is entitled to obedience and worship. It goes further to state that it is a particular system of faith and worship that one is entitled to.

The word “conflict” has multiple ranges and meaning on the vocabularies of the west on the plane of biography, it usually stands for inner stress and tension, as when a self evolves from the childhood and dependency; when choices between rival moral challenges or course of social action have to be made, or when competitive ideas intrude upon the mental process of seeking certainty and truth.9 Indeed it is hardly possible to appreciate the stream of scientific discoveries artistic inventions, or philosophical theories carried out by this culture without realizing that each represents the resolution of conflicting principles.

A circumstance or condition of disharmony in an interactional process could be referred to as conflict. According to Banks, a conflict situation is one in which one person’s activity is genuinely or forcibly imposed upon another at an intolerable cost, whether it be financial or psychological. Banks proposed three necessary conditions for conflict, including the intensity and importance of the topics at stake, the standing and legitimacy of the parties, and the concentration of interests and coherence of divisions within a community. 10 These elements determine how far a conflict can spread. Conflict is not restricted to any specific level of contact, as Imobighe emphasizes. 11 In other words, it could happen at any stage of a human relationship and frequently shows itself as violent behavior. Simple definitions of conflict include: to fight, battle, contend; to be hostile, incompatible, or contradictory; to be in opposition; to clash; to have a severe difference of opinion; and more. It could signify an emotional disturbance brought on by the collision of conflicting impulses.

Conflict is defined as “a situation in which a group or groups of people or countries are engaged in serious disagreement or argument; it is also a situation in which there are divergent ideas, opinions, feelings, or wishes, making a decision difficult.” This definition comes from the sixth edition of the Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary. Conflict can also be described as an uncooperative relationship between two or more people, groups of people, nations, etc. This is the end of peace where there was once peace. Injustice or the perception of injustice, unfair benefit distribution or the perception of unfair benefit distribution, and betrayal of trust or the perception of perceived betrayal of justice are key variables in the cessation of peace (which causes conflicts). Conflict can also be defined as a disagreement where one or more parties think that their needs, interests, or worries are at danger.

The character of the Nigerian state is responsible for the country’s deepening ethno–religious contradictions. This plural nature originates a constant feeling of distrust between the component units and the fear of one ethnic or religious group dominating the other is rife. A pattern of largely discernable ethnic suspicion and intrigues that had existed prior independence in 1960 led to the military coup d’etat of 1966, the traumatic civil war between 1967, and 1970, mutual distrust afterwards, the annulment of the June 12, 1993 presidential elections and the incessant ethno- religious skirmishes that are presently threatening the very fabric of our nascent democracy and national existence.12

Nigeria has within its various stages of development, embraced three of the exiting world religions these are Traditional religion, Christianity and Islam. In tracing the impact of each of these religions on Nigeria’s social, political and economic life, some contribution made use of periodization, denoting the level of religiosity of the nation before independence and after the attainment of self government. The existence of any group is the existence of a power above them which regulates their lives and provides them which the survival hit with which the vicissitudes of life are combated. Religion therefore came to describe the totality of man’s outward pattern of behaviour as he struggles to emulate the ways of that being who must be good and to be in the right relations with his being. This belief is found in all communities and societies of the world at varying degrees and with varying conceptual understanding and postulations. Basically therefore, each of the religions existing in Nigeria presents the outward interpretations of qualities of this being, and their perception of his infinity and benevolence. The different location and geographical classifications of peoples has occasioned the conception of the being and their expressions in objects, creed, tenets and worship. The acceptance of this position, dictates of necessity, the existence of groups of people with their religion in Nigeria before the advent of Christianity or Islam.

The origin and history of ethnic conflict can be traced from internal state rivalry to external. And its root cause is not very far from power competition and decision making over economic resources and their important human factor, like position. The implementation process has always involved more than one or two person. In general concept, conflict could be traced back to the first and early patriarchal of human history an ever since then, there has been an increase in various dimensions of conflict in the face of human world. Some are personal (internal) conflict, family, community, group, intellectual, state, national and international in nature. 13

In confronting to this idea, Badawi in his statement titled “World Apart” stated thus, “Indeed the greatest discord today is among the descendants of Abraham. These are the people of the book, the followers of Judaism, Christianity and Islam who had in fact share a common beginning in the religion of Abraham”.14 In shading more light in the above statement, Badawi’s statement goes far beyond religion, rather, he was tracing one of the earliest source of conflict which Badawi mentioned the off springs of the said Abraham. Even before Abraham there had been conflict, so it is as old as human history down to the Abrahamic period, to ancient kingdoms, Dukes and kings.

The most persistent issues in Nigeria’s body politics include those involving ethnic and religious groups. Since the colonial era, the problem has pervaded the landscape, and as of now, it appears that there is no end in sight to the accompanying conflicts of ethnic rivalry and religious intolerance. 15 The majority and minority ethnic groups see one another suspiciously, and conflicts between the various theological worldviews occur at the smallest provocation.

After independence in 1960, institutional attempts to sate these tendencies have fallen short. The lengthy period of military dictatorship widened the gulf of mistrust as elites purposefully used state authority to further archaic beliefs, widening the gulf of intolerance in Nigeria. Certain groups and people who benefit at the expense of the government and the people are the driving forces behind the contemporary political and religious conflicts. Numerous actors have a stake in the promotion of ethno-religious conflicts, according to the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, because the associated math of numbers that underpins the conflicts translates into jobs, contracts, the creation of local governments and states, as well as representation in the National Assembly.

The establishment of the Sharia judicial system has given the entire farce a new depth. While Christians view its introduction as incompatible with the spirit of secularism as stated in section 10 of the 1979 and 1999 constitutions, which states that “the government of the federation or of a state shall not adopt any religion as a state religion,” Muslims defend its introduction as one of the benefits of democracy. 17 This highlights the fact that fears of political dominance of one ethnic or religious group by the other are the fundamental problem in Nigeria, rather than the degree of ethnic diversity, secularism, or religiosity.

The years between 1952 and 1966 brought changes in the political culture of the country, transforming the three regions into three political entities. Thus, the struggle for independence was reduced to the quest for ethnic dominance. At this time, ethnic and sub – ethnic loyalties threatened that survival of both East and West, while the North was divided religiously between Christianity and Islam. It was a period of politicized ethnicity and competition for resources, which worsened the relationships between ethnic groups. There was a high degree of corruption, nepotism, and tribalism. The national interest was put aside while politicians used public money to build and maintain patronage networks. 18 Since independence, the situation in Nigeria has been fraught with ethnic politics whereby the elite from different ethnic groups schemed to attract as many federal resources to their regions as possible, neglecting issues that could have united the country. The anarchy, competition and insecurity led to the demise of the first republic. Military intervention culminated in the gruesome ethnic war from 1967 to 1970, when the mistreated Igbos of eastern Nigeria, called Biafrans, threatened to secede from the federation the Igbo’s grievances were because they were denied of their basic human needs of equality, citizenship, autonomy and freedom.19 Wherever such basic needs are denied, conflict often follows as the aggrieved groups use violent means to fight for their human right.

Ethnocentrism in the country and evidenced corruption of the electoral and political process led in 1966 to a number of revengeful military coups in the country. 20 The first military coup was in January when a collection of young leftist under Major Emmanuel Ifeajuma and Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu led a coup, it was partially successful. The coup brought about the death of some notable figure such as the former Prime Minister , Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, Premier Ahmadu Bello of the Northern region and Premier Ladoke Akintola of the western region. Though they could not set up a central government, therefore, president Nwafor Orizu was then pressured to hand over government to the Nigerian Army under the command of General JTU Aguyi Ironsi. Later on, there was another counter coup by another successful plot, which were primarily supported by the Northern military officers and those northerners who were in favour with the NPC. This time, it was planned and carried out by the northern officers and gave Lt. Colonel Yakubu Gowon to become head of state. This series of coups led to an increase in ethnic tension and violence. The northern coup, which was mostly motivated by ethnic and religious reason, the result was a bloodbath of both military officers and civilians, especially those of Igbo extraction. The violence against the Igbo increased their desire for a demand of their own authority and protection from the military’s wrath. By May 1967, the eastern region had declared itself an independent state calling themselves “Republic of Biafra” with Lt. Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu as the leader. Inspired by the Pan – Yoruba militant groups, the Afenifere and the Oduduwa People Congress (OPC) in south – western Nigeria threatened secession and intensified violent protest across the country.

Throughout Nigeria’s journey to democracy, ethnic tensions persisted. A civilian named Olusegun Obasanjo has served as president for a number of years. 21 But, as diverse ethnic groups call for a political reorganization, hostilities are getting worse. The federal structure has major cracks and has to be fixed immediately. Nevertheless, what is more concerning is the religious component of ethnic rivalries in Nigeria for riches and power. The advent of Muslim Sharia courts and the south’s demands for autonomy are the root causes of the numerous ethnoreligious confrontations in the northern cities of Kano, Kaduna, Jos, and Zamfara. The ongoing unrest is proof that Nigeria lacks efficient systems for resolving ethnic disputes.

ENDNOTES

The Effect of Ethno-Religious Conflict on Nigeria Federalism, O.A. Fawole and M. L. Bello, International NGO Journal, Volume 6, No. 10, 2011, p. 212.
E. E. Osaghae, “Ethnicity and Democracy,” Understanding Democracy, A Fasoro et al. (eds.), Ibadan: Book Craft Limited, 1992, p. 51
The Haugues Montor Publishers, 1975. L. A. Despres, “Towards a Theory in Ethnic and Phenomenon,” in A. Heo and L. A. Despres (eds. ), Ethnicity and Resource Competition Handicapped societies.
Ethnic Politics in Nigeria, by Okwudiba Nnoli, Fourth Dimension Publishers, Enugu, 1980, p.
Ethnic and Religious Violence in Nigeria, by S. G. Egwu, Jos: St. Stephen Inc. Book House, 2001, p.
Religion and Politics: A Bird’s Eye Perspective of Progress in Nigeria, by M.O. Adeniyi, in R. D. Abubakar,  (ed.) Relilgion and Politics in Nigeria, (Ilorin, NASR Publications 1993) p. 23.
C. J. Ejizu, ‘’Religious and Politics in Nigeria: The Perspective of the Indigenous Religious’’, In R.D Abubakar, et al (eds) Religion and Politics in Nigeria ( Jos: St. Stephen Inc Book House, 1993), p.15.
S. A. Ayinla, Managing Religious Intolerance and violence in Nigeria, Problems and solutions, A Paper Presented at the National Conference on Social, Problems, Development and the Challenges of Globalisation, organized by Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, 2003.
A. B. Bozeman, Conflict in Africa (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1976), p. 3.
M. Banks, Conflicts in World Societys (London: Wheat sheaf Publisher, 1984), p. 100
T. A., Imobighe, ‘’Human Needs Approach to Conflict Resolution: Neglect Aspects’’, Nigerian Journal of International Affairs, Volume 18, No. ,1 1992, p. 32.
www.dawoduc.om/deyemi3.htm (accessed August 24,2012)
R. I. Jacob, ‘’Historical Survey of Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria’’, Asian Journal of Social Science, Volume 8, No 4, 2012 p. 13.
Ibid.
www.dawodu.com/adeyemi3.htm (accessed August24, 2012)
Ibid.
Ibid.
R.J. Jacob, ‘’Historical Survey of Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria’’, p. 15.