THE PRODUCTION OF BIODIESEL (FAME) FROM PALM KERNEL OIL (PKO) USING CONCENTRATED SULPHURIC ACID AS CATALYST
chapter One
Foreword
1.0 General Introduction
Energy is the mainstay of modern society and an essential component of socioeconomic development (UNIDO, 2007). The recognition of the impending depletion of fossil fuels coupled with the global energy crisis has increased interest in exploring alternative energy sources (Garba et al., 1996). Given that epileptic supply and distribution of fossil fuels has become unattainable for Nigeria’s rural population, the urgent need for alternative and affordable energy supplies in Nigeria is becoming increasingly apparent (Eze, 2003).
The use of renewable raw materials contributes significantly to sustainable development. This is commonly interpreted as “acting responsibly to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Meier, et al., 2007).
Vegetable oil is currently the most important renewable raw material for the chemical industry. They are triglycerides (triesters of glycerol and long-chain fatty acids) (see Figure 1) and have different fatty acid compositions depending on the plant, crop, season and growing conditions.
〇
〇
RI
〇
〇
RI
〇
RI
〇
Figure 1.1:
Chemical structure of triglycerides, R = alkyl group.
The table below shows the composition of some oils used for transesterification to obtain biodiesel. It shows the composition of the fatty acids involved, the chain length in terms of number of carbons, and the number of double bonds.
Table 1.1:
The composition of some oils from plant
R(x,y) =
10:
0
12:
0
14:
0
16:
0
18:
0
18:
1
18:
2
18:
3
20:
0
New rapeseed
–
–
0.5
4
1
60
20
9
2
Sun flower
–
–
–
6
4
28
61
–
–
Palm kernel
5
50
15
7
2
15
1
–
–
Linseed
–
–
–
10
5
22
15
52
–
Soybean
–
–
–
10
5
21
53
8
0.5
R(x,y) = Composition of the fatty acids;
x = Chain length in carbon atoms;
y = Number of double bonds
Biofuels are a wide range of fuels which are derived from biomass and can be used as a large source of energy supply. The term covers solid biomass, liquid fuels and various biogases (Dembras, 2009). Biofuels are gaining increased public and scientific attention, driven by factors such as oil price spikes, the need for increased energy security, concern over greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels, and government subsidies.
Biofuels are drawing increasing attention worldwide as substitutes for petroleum – derived transportation fuels to help address energy cost, energy security and global warming concern associated with liquid fossil fuels. Biofuels include ethanol made from sugar cane or diesel-like fuel made from soybean oil, dimethyl ether (DME) or Fischer – Tropsch Liquids (FTL) made from lignocellusosic biomass. The Nigerian Energy Commission stated that while crude oil will continue to play a dominant role in the country’s economic development in the short term (2005-2007), the transition from oil to energy in the medium term (2008-2015) will continue. is expected to occur. Using more gas for a less carbon-intensive economy. Even in the long term (2016-2025), the country’s energy needs will be completely non-fossil. (ECN, 2005).
A relatively recent and popular classification of liquid biofuels includes first and second generation fuels. These terms do not have a strict technical definition, but the main difference is the source material used.
First generation fuels are generally made from sugar, grains, or seeds. A fuel that uses only a specific (often edible) portion of aboveground biomass produced by H. plants, requiring relatively simple processing to produce the finished fuel. First generation fuels are already in large commercial production in many countries. Members of this group include bioalcohols, biodiesel, green diesel (also called renewable diesel), bioethers, and biogases.
Second-generation fuels are generally fuels made from non-edible lignocellulosic biomass, either non-edible residues from food production (e.g. corn stalks and rice husks) or non-edible whole-grass biomass (e.g. for energy purposes). either grass or trees specially grown in . Second generation biofuels are always made from sustainable raw materials. Raw material sustainability is defined by, among other things, raw material availability, impact on greenhouse gas emissions, impact on biodiversity and land use. A number of second-generation biofuels are under development, including: B. Cellulose ethanol, algae fuel, biohydrogen, biomethanol, Fischer-Tropsch diesel, mixed alcohols, biohydrogen diesel, and wood diesel.
1.1 Research background
Biodiesel (fatty acid methyl ester) is an alternative fuel for diesel engines. It is an alcohol ester product by transesterification of triglycerides in vegetable or animal oils, achieved by reacting lower alcohols such as methanol or ethanol with triglycerides. The National Biodiesel Board (USA) technically defines biodiesel as a monoalkyl ester. Blends of biodiesel and conventional hydrocarbon-based diesel are the most commonly sold products for use in the retail diesel fuel market. Biodiesel does not contain petroleum, but any amount can be blended with petroleum diesel to create a biodiesel blend. Many countries around the world use a system known as the “B” factor to indicate the amount of biodiesel in their fuel blends.
Ø 100% biodiesel is called B100.
Ø 20% biodiesel, 80% petroleum diesel is marked B20. Ø 5% biodiesel, 95% petroleum diesel is marked B5.
Ø 2% biodiesel, 98% petroleum diesel is marked B2.
Blends of less than 20% biodiesel can be used in diesel equipment with little or no modification. Biodiesel can also be used in its pure form (B100), but can be mixed with petroleum diesel in any concentration in most injection pump diesel engines. New ultra high pressure (29000psi) common rail engines have a tight factory limit of B5 or B20 depending on the manufacturer. Biodiesel has different solvent properties than petroleum diesel and will degrade natural rubber seals and hoses on vehicles (mainly vehicles built before 1992), which tend to wear naturally and are biocompatible. Most likely already replaced by FKM, which does not react with diesel.
The first diesel he engines were manufactured by the Rudolf company in Augsburg and Germany. To commemorate this event, August 10th was declared “International Biodiesel Day”. Rudolf Diesel demonstrated a peanut-fueled diesel (at the request of the French government) at the 1990 World’s Fair in Paris, France, for the French Otto Society. (Knothe, 2001). Biodiesel is known to break down residual deposits in fuel lines where petroleum diesel has been used. As a result, a rapid switch to pure biodiesel can clog fuel filters with particulates. Therefore, it is recommended to replace the engine and heater fuel filters immediately after switching to biodiesel blends.
Biodiesel is a water immiscible light to dark yellow liquid with a high boiling point and low vapor pressure. used as a substitute
Current commercial production of biodiesel (FAME) is by homogeneous transesterification, but this process has many limitations and the cost of biodiesel is not economical compared to petroleum-derived diesel. One of the major limitations when using this process is the formation of soap in the product mixture. This results in the additional costs required to separate the soap from the biodiesel. In addition, soap formation also resulted in the loss of triglyceride molecules that could be used to form biodiesel. However, separating the product (biodiesel) from the catalyst is complicated because the catalyst and extract/product are in the same phase. Heterogeneous transesterification, on the other hand, can overcome all these limitations by using solid-based catalysts instead of homogeneous catalysts, making it a more efficient process for biodiesel production, reducing costs and being environmentally friendly. will be less affected. Apologize. A potassium-loaded alumina catalyst was used to study the transesterification of soybean oil to methyl esters. Also, Suppes et al. Jitputti et al. We studied the transesterification of crude palm kernel oil and crude coconut oil using several acidic and basic solids. All these studies have shown that different oils require different catalysts for optimal conversion to biodiesel. {International Environmental Conference 2008 (ICENV 2008)}
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