Gender And Substance Use As Factors That Predisposes Dating Violence Victimization

Gender And Substance Use As Factors That Predisposes Dating Violence Victimization

Chapter One

Introduction

Violence has been recognized as a public health issue. Its impact can be seen in various forms in all parts of the world. Each year, more than a million people lose their lives, and many more suffer non-fatal injuries as a result of violence. Overall, violence is among the leading causes of death worldwide for people aged 15-44 years (world report on violence and health, 2004). The World Health Organization (2004) defined violence as “the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, which either results in or has a likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, mal-development, or deprivation”. Violence can be divided into three broad categories according to characteristics of those committing the violent act, and they are; self-directed violence, interpersonal violence, and collective violence (World Health Organization, 2004). Interpersonal violence is of interest in this study. There are various types of interpersonal violence and they are; family violence, child abuse, dating violence, intimate partner violence and abuse of the elderly. Dating violence is the category of inter-personal violence of violence considered in this study.

Over the last several decades, dating violence has emerged as a significant social and public health issue affecting today’s youth. It is a significant public issue because the incidence of dating violence has escalated substantially in recent years. One in four adolescents individually report verbal, physical or emotional abuse from a dating partner each year. Additionally, 10 percent of students nationwide report being physically hurt by a boyfriend or girlfriend in the past 12 months (Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2002).

Dating violence has been defined as physical, psychological or sexual violence within a dating relationship. It is when one person purposely hurts or scares someone they are dating (Coker, McKeown, and Heubner, 2000). Sugarman and Hofaling (1989) defined dating violence as the use of threat or physical force or restraint carried out with the intent of causing pain or injury to another within a dating relationship. It has also been defined as a constellation of sexual abusive and violent behaviours including homicide, physical and sexual assault, threats and harassment, kidnapping, stalking, economic deprivation, intimidation and psychological abuse (Therrot, 2008).

Although once narrowly conceptualized as involving only physical force, dating violence is now more broadly recognized as a continuum of abuse which can range from incidents of emotional and verbal abuse to rape and murder (Hickman, Lewis and fremouw, (2004). It involves a pattern of coercive, manipulative behaviour that one partner exerts on the other for the purpose of establishing and maintaining power and control (Silverman, Raj, Mucci and Hathaway, 2001)

According to Carr and VanDeusen (2002), dating violence includes sexual abuse as well as psychological abuse. Sexual abuse in violent dating relationships include forced or coerced sexual activity (Aosved and Long, 2005); while psychological abuse include dominating behaviours, verbal denigration and social isolation (Murphy and Hover, 1999). Lewis, Fremouw and Travea (2002) posit that physical violence and psychological violence often co-occur in abusive relationships.

Dating violence have been found to be a strong predictor of marital violence (White, Merrill and Koss, 2001). Researchers are of the view that dating violence during the young adult years provides a training ground for behavior in subsequent long term relationships because violent behavior that begin in dating context often continues into marital relationship (O’Leary and Curley, 1989).

Dating violence is associated with a number of health problems. For instance, both minor and severe forms of dating violence are associated with increased depressive and anxious symptomatology (Harned, 2001), somatic complaints (Kaura and Lohman, 2007) and physical injuries (Amar and Gennaro, 2005). Although female victims are more likely than male victims to sustain physical injuries as a result of abuse (Archer, 2000), research increasingly indicates that male victims of dating violence often violence often experience a similar number of mental health problems as their female counterparts (Prospero, 2007). In all, the mental health and physical health toll of dating violence is devastating.

Factors such as; witnessing parental violence, experiencing childhood violence, problems with alcohol, length of dating relationship, relationship satisfaction, anger management skills, gender, among others influencing dating violence have been examined. However, gender and substance use are of interest in this study. Furthermore, dating violence is of two domains, namely; dating violence perpetration and dating violence victimization; dating violence victimization is the domain of interest in this study.

Dating violence victimization involves the process of being victimized in a dating relationship (Simon, 2009). It is a situation whereby one partner is at the receiving end of the aggression, verbal abuse, sexual violence, bullying and other related violence caused by their partner in a dating relationship. (Hawker, 2000).

According to Black, Noonan, Eaton and Breiding (2006), the prevalence of victimization from physical and psychological dating violence is estimated at 12% and 20% respectively. (Halpern, Oslak, Young, Martin, Kupper, (2001) posits that, victims of dating violence are more likely to attempt suicide, engage in physical fighting, risky sexual behavior, unhealthy dieting and behaviours.

Victims of dating violence often get trapped into self-image of victimization (Foshee, 1996). The psychological profile of dating violence victimization includes a pervasive sense of helplessness, passivity, loss of control, pessimism, negative thinking, strong feelings of guilt, shame, self-blame and depression. This way of thinking can lead to helplessness and despair (Messman and Patricia, 1996).

Gender is a variable of interest in this study. Gender has been defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization (1997) as “the relations between men and women, both perceptual and material. Gender is not determined biologically, as a result of sexual characteristics of either women or men, but is constructed socially. It is a central organizing principles of societies, and often governs the processes of production, reproduction, consumption and distribution.” (Bravo-Baumann 2000). It has also been defined as the personal identity of an individual, regardless of the person’s biological or outward sex. (Kendra, 2001).

Studies have found inconsistent results on the influence of gender on dating violence victimization. For example, Spencer and Bryant (2000) found that boys reported a higher level of physical violence victimization than girls, 11% and 8% respectively. Comparatively, Bergman’s (1992) combined measure of physical and sexual victimization found that more girls (16%) reported abuse than boys (8%) Furthermore, O’keefe and Treister (1998) posit that males and females perceive their victimization differently. According to them, females indicate significantly more emotional hurt and fear. It is however unclear of the extent to which male or female may differ or may not differ in dating violence victimization.

Another variable of interest is substance use. Epidemiologists have found that substance use in itself is a limited way of describing and measuring drug consumption and other related problems. (Foshee, 1996). As a result, substance use is often distinguished from substance abuse. Therefore, substance use refers to experimentation or low frequency, typically irregular use of illicit drugs (American Psychiatric Association, 2007).

It is generally well established that substance use is associated with dating violence victimization (Foran and O’Leary, 2008; Moore, 2008; Stuart, O’Farrell and Temple 2009). For example, Temple and Freeman, (2008) found that compared to their non-abused counterparts, youths who experienced dating violence victimization were those that most likely smoke cigarettes, drink alcohol, sniff glue to get high, use marijuana, use ecstasy, use Vicodin, and use Xanax.

Increased vulnerability to sexual violence also stems from the use of alcohol and other drugs. Crowell and Burgess (1996) assert that consuming alcohol or drugs make it more difficult for people to protect themselves by interpreting and effectively acting on warning signs of dating violence. (Crowell, Burgess, 1996). According to Gover (2004), drug and alcohol predispose students to being beaten up by someone they are dating. Therefore, this study will seek to determine if substance use for victimized female undergraduates will differ from their male counterparts.

Statement of the Problem

Dating violence victimization is a significant problem in our society especially among young adults. According to Jackson (1999) and Lewis, and Freemouw (2001), as many as one in three college couples will be involved in at least one incident of violence during their dating relationship. Furthermore, some studies have found prevalence rates of dating violence close to 50% (Avias, Samois, O’Leary, 1987). Although prevalence rates widely fluctuate (Lewis and Freemouw, 2001). It is clear that dating violence is a significant issue that needs addressing. Dating violence victimization can have severe physical psychological consequences. It can lead to homicide or suicide in extreme cases (Fishback and Herbert, 1997) as well as emotional symptoms stemming from depression and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PSTD) (Holtzworth-Munroe, 1992). Dating violence victimization can also affect the individual and the society as a whole. It can cost a lot of finance each year. Among the major expenses are; medical costs, absenteeism from classes, law enforcement responses, legal intervention in some cases, damaged property and need for change of institution (Edwardson and Morse, 2006).

However, this study attempts to provide insight on the factors that increase the risk of becoming violated in a dating relationship. Examining risk factors associated with dating violence victimization may lead to a better knowledge for prevention programs and clinical treatment. Both males and females are victims of violence in a dating relationship (Kaura and Allen, 2004), therefore this study will also seek to determine if substance use for victimized males will differ from their female counterparts.

Research Questions

This research seeks to answer the following questions;

Will differences in gender influence dating violence victimization?

Will substance use influence dating violence victimization?

Will difference in gender and substance use influence dating violence victimization.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study is to investigate the following:

Whether gender will have any significant influence on dating violence victimization; and

Whether substance use will have a significant influence on dating violence victimization.

Whether gender and substance use will have a significant influence on dating violence victimization.

Operational Definition of Terms

Gender: As used in the study refers to male or female undergraduates.

Substance Use: Substance use in this study refers to the low, moderate or high use of any of the substances listed below; alcohol, cocaine/crack, painkillers and sedatives, marijuana, tranquilizers, sniff gases or fumes and others. Scores from 0-4 indicates low substance use, 5-26 indicates moderate substance use and 27+ indicates high substance use. This is determined using Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Test (ASSIST) version 3.0 developed by Ali, Elia, Babor, Bradley, Farrell, McRee, Pal, Vendetti, and Marsden (2002).

Dating Violence Victimization: Dating violence Victimization is a situation whereby one partner is at the receiving end of the aggression, verbal abuse, sexual violence, bullying and other related violence caused by their partner in a dating relationship. (Hawker, 2000). (Jackson, 1999).